% GenI surface realiser % Copyright (C) 2009 Eric Kow % % This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or % modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License % as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 % of the License, or (at your option) any later version. % % This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, % but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of % MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the % GNU General Public License for more details. % % You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License % along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software % Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. \chapter{Polarity Optimisation} \label{cha:Polarity} We introduce a notion of polarities as a means of pre-detecting incompatibilities between candidate trees for different propositions. This optimisation is inserted between candidate selection (section \ref{sec:candidate_selection}) and chart generation. The input to this optimisation is the \jargon{target semantics} and the corresponding \jargon{candidate trees}. This whole optimisation is based on adding polarities to the grammar. We have a set of strings which we call \jargon{polarity keys}, and some positive or negative integers which we call \jargon{charges}. Each tree in the grammar may assign a charge to some number of polarity keys. For example, here is a simple grammar that uses the polarity keys n and v. \begin{tabular}{|l|l|} \hline tree & polarity effects \\ \hline s(n$\downarrow$, v$\downarrow$, n$\downarrow$) & -2n -v\\ v(hates) & +v\\ n(mary) & +n\\ n(john) & +n\\ \hline \end{tabular} For now, these annotations are done by hand, and are based on syntactic criteria (substitution and root node categories) but one could envisage alternate criteria or an eventual means of automating the process. The basic idea is to use the polarity keys to determine which subsets of candidate trees are incompatible with each other and rule them out. We construct a finite state automaton which uses polarity keys to pre-calculate the compatibility of sets of trees. At the end of the optimisation, we are left with an automaton, each path of which is a potentially compatible set of trees. We then preform surface realisation seperately, treating each path as a set of candidate trees. \emph{Important note}: one thing that may be confusing in this chapter is that we refer to polarities (charges) as single integers, e.g, $-2n$. In reality, to account for weird stuff like atomic disjunction, we do not use simple integers, but polarities intervals, so more something like $(-2,-2)n$! But for the most part, the intervals are zero length, and you can just think of $-2n$ as shorthand for $(-2,-2)n$. \begin{code}
module NLP.GenI.Polarity(
-- * Entry point
PolAut, PolState(PolSt), AutDebug, PolResult,
buildAutomaton,

-- * Inner stuff (exported for debugging?)
makePolAut,
fixPronouns,
detectSansIdx, detectPolFeatures, detectPols, detectPolPaths,
declareIdxConstraints, detectIdxConstraints,
showLite, showLitePm, showPolPaths, showPolPaths',

-- re-exported from Automaton
automatonPaths, finalSt,
NFA(states, transitions),
)
where

\end{code} \begin{code}
import Data.Bits
import qualified Data.Set as Set
import qualified Data.Map as Map
import Data.List
import Data.Maybe (isNothing, isJust)
import Data.Tree (flatten)
import qualified Data.Set as Set

import NLP.GenI.Automaton
import NLP.GenI.Btypes(Pred, SemInput, Sem, Flist, AvPair(..), showAv,
GeniVal(..), fromGConst, isConst,
replace,
emptyPred, Ptype(Initial),
showFlist, showSem, sortSem,
GNode, root, gup, gdown, gtype, GType(Subs),
SemPols, unify, unifyFeat, rootUpd)
import NLP.GenI.General(
BitVector, isEmptyIntersect, thd3,
Interval, ival, (!+!), showInterval)
import NLP.GenI.PolarityTypes
import NLP.GenI.Tags(TagElem(..), TagItem(..), setTidnums)

\end{code} \section{Interface} \begin{code}
-- | intermediate auts, seed aut, final aut, potentially modified sem
type PolResult = ([AutDebug], PolAut, PolAut, Sem)
type AutDebug  = (PolarityKey, PolAut, PolAut)

-- | Constructs a polarity automaton.  For debugging purposes, it returns
--   all the intermediate automata produced by the construction algorithm.
buildAutomaton :: Set.Set PolarityAttr -- ^ polarities to detect
-> Flist                -- ^ root features to compensate for
-> PolMap               -- ^ explicit extra polarities
-> SemInput             -- ^ input semantics
-> [TagElem]            -- ^ lexical selection
-> PolResult
buildAutomaton polarityAttrs rootFeat extrapol (tsem,tres,_) candRaw =
let -- root categories, index constraints, and external polarities
rcatPol :: Map.Map PolarityKey Interval
rcatPol = Map.fromList . pdJusts
$map (\v -> detectPolarityForAttr (-1) (pAttr v) rootFeat)$ Set.toList polarityAttrs
pAttr p@(SimplePolarityAttr _)       = spkAtt p
pAttr p@(RestrictedPolarityAttr _ _) = rpkAtt p
--
allExtraPols = Map.unionsWith (!+!) [ extrapol, inputRest, rcatPol ]
-- index constraints on candidate trees
detect      = detectIdxConstraints tres
constrain t = t { tpolarities = Map.unionWith (!+!) p r
} --, tinterface  = [] }
where p  = tpolarities t
r  = detect . tinterface $t candRest = map constrain candRaw inputRest = declareIdxConstraints tres -- polarity detection cand = detectPols polarityAttrs candRest -- building the automaton in makePolAut cand tsem allExtraPols  \end{code} \section{The automaton itself - outline} \label{polarity:overview} We start with the controller function (the general architecture) and detail the individual steps in the following sections. The basic architecture is as follows: \begin{enumerate} \item Build a seed automaton (section \ref{sec:seed_automaton}). \item For each polarity key, elaborate the automaton with the polarity information for that key (section \ref{sec:automaton_construction}) and minimise the automaton (section \ref{sec:automaton_pruning}). \end{enumerate} The above process can be thought of as a more efficient way of constructing an automaton for each polarity key, minimising said automaton, and then taking their intersection. In any case, we return everything a tuple with (1) a list of the automota that were created (2) the final automaton (3) a possibly modified input semantics. The first item is only neccesary for debugging; only the last two are important. Note: \begin{itemize} \item the \fnparam{extraPol} argument is a map containing any initial values for polarity keys. This is useful to impose external filters like I only want expressions where the object is topicalised''. \item to recuperate something useful from these automaton, it might be helpful to call \fnref{automatonPaths} on it. \end{itemize} \begin{code} makePolAut :: [TagElem] -> Sem -> PolMap -> PolResult makePolAut candsRaw tsemRaw extraPol = let -- polarity items ksCands = concatMap (Map.keys . tpolarities) cands ksExtra = Map.keys extraPol ks = sortBy (flip compare)$ nub $ksCands ++ ksExtra -- perform index counting (tsem, cands') = fixPronouns (tsemRaw,candsRaw) cands = setTidnums cands' -- sorted semantics (for more efficient construction) sortedsem = sortSemByFreq tsem cands -- the seed automaton smap = buildColumns cands sortedsem seed = buildSeedAut smap sortedsem -- building and remembering the automata build k xs = (k,aut,prune aut):xs where aut = buildPolAut k initK (thd3$ head xs)
initK = Map.findWithDefault (ival 0) k extraPol
res = foldr build [(PolarityKey "(seed)",seed,prune seed)] ks
in (reverse res, seed, thd3 $head res, tsem)  \end{code} % ==================================================================== \section{Polarity automaton} \label{sec:polarity_automaton} % ==================================================================== We construct a finite state automaton for each polarity key that is in the set of trees. It helps to imagine a table where each column corresponds to a single proposition. \begin{center} \begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|} \hline \semexpr{gift(g)} & \semexpr{cost(g,x)} & \semexpr{high(x)} \\ \hline \natlang{the gift} \color{blue}{+1np} & \natlang{the cost of} & \natlang{is high} \color{red}{-1np} \\ % \natlang{the present} \color{blue}{+1np} & \natlang{costs} \color{red}{-1np} & \natlang{a lot} \\ % && \natlang{much} \\ \hline \end{tabular} \end{center} Each column (proposition) has a different number of cells which corresponds to the lexical ambiguity for that proposition, more concretely, the number of candidate trees for that proposition. The \jargon{polarity automaton} describes the different ways we can traverse the table from column to column, choosing a cell to pass through at each step and accumulating polarity along the way. Each state represents the polarity at a column and each transition represents the tree we chose to get there. All transitions from one columns$i$to the next$i+1$that lead to the same accumulated polarity lead to the same state. % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \subsection{Columns} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- We build the columns for the polarity automaton as follows. Given a input semantics \texttt{sem} and a list of trees \texttt{cands}, we group the trees by the first literal of sem that is part of their tree semantics. Note: this is not the same function as Tags.mapBySem! The fact that we preserve the order of the input semantics is important for our handling of multi-literal semantics and for semantic frequency sorting. \begin{code} buildColumns :: (TagItem t) => [t] -> Sem -> Map.Map Pred [t] buildColumns cands [] = Map.singleton emptyPred e where e = filter (null.tgSemantics) cands buildColumns cands (l:ls) = let matchfn t = l elem tgSemantics t (match, cands2) = partition matchfn cands next = buildColumns cands2 ls in Map.insert l match next  \end{code} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \subsection{Initial Automaton} \label{sec:seed_automaton} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- We first construct a relatively trivial polarity automaton without any polarity effects. Each state except the start state corresponds to a literal in the target semantics, and the transitions to a state consist of the trees whose semantics is subsumed by that literal. \begin{code} buildSeedAut :: SemMap -> Sem -> PolAut buildSeedAut cands tsem = let start = polstart [] hasZero (x,y) = x <= 0 && y >= 0 isFinal (PolSt c _ pols) = c == length tsem && all hasZero pols initAut = NFA { startSt = start , isFinalSt = Just isFinal , finalStList = [] , states = [[start]] , transitions = Map.empty } in nubAut$ buildSeedAut' cands tsem 1 initAut

-- for each literal...
buildSeedAut' :: SemMap -> Sem -> Int -> PolAut -> PolAut
buildSeedAut' _ [] _ aut = aut
buildSeedAut' cands (l:ls) i aut =
let -- previously created candidates
prev   = head $states aut -- candidates that match the target semantics tcands = Map.findWithDefault [] l cands -- create the next batch of states fn st ap = buildSeedAutHelper tcands l i st ap (newAut,newStates) = foldr fn (aut,[]) prev next = nub newStates : states aut -- recursive step to the next literal in buildSeedAut' cands ls (i+1) (newAut { states = next }) -- for each candidate corresponding to literal l... buildSeedAutHelper :: [TagElem] -> Pred -> Int -> PolState -> (PolAut,[PolState]) -> (PolAut,[PolState]) buildSeedAutHelper cs l i st (aut,prev) = let -- get the extra semantics from the last state (PolSt _ ex1 _) = st -- candidates that match the target semantics and which -- do not overlap the extra baggage semantics tcand = [ Just t | t <- cs , isEmptyIntersect ex1 (tsemantics t) ] -- add the transitions out of the current state addT tr (a,n) = (addTrans a st tr st2, st2:n) where st2 = PolSt i (delete l$ ex1 ++ ex2) []
ex2 = case tr of
Nothing  -> []
Just tr_ -> tsemantics tr_
in if (l elem ex1)

\end{code} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \subsection{Construction} \label{sec:automaton_construction} \label{sec:automaton_intersection} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- The goal is to construct a polarity automaton which accounts for a given polarity key $k$. The basic idea is that given literals $p_1..p_n$ in the target semantics, we create a start state, calculate the states/transitions to $p_1$ and succesively calculate the states/transitions from proposition $p_x$ to $p_{x+1}$ for all $1 < x < n$. The ultimate goal is to construct an automaton that accounts for multiple polarity keys. The simplest approach would be to calculate a seperate automaton for each key, prune them all and then intersect the pruned automaton together, but we can do much better than that. Since the pruned automata are generally much smaller in size, we perform an iterative intersection by using a previously pruned automaton as the skeleton for the current automaton. This is why we don't pass any literals or candidates to the construction step; it takes them directly from the previous automaton. See also section \ref{sec:seed_automaton} for the seed automaton that you can use when there is no previous automaton''. \begin{code}
buildPolAut :: PolarityKey -> Interval -> PolAut -> PolAut
buildPolAut k initK skelAut =
let concatPol p (PolSt pr b pol) = PolSt pr b (p:pol)
newStart = concatPol initK $startSt skelAut -- initAut = skelAut { startSt = newStart , states = [[newStart]] , transitions = Map.empty } -- cand' = observe "candidate map" cand in nubAut$ buildPolAut' k (transitions skelAut) initAut

\end{code} Our helper function looks at a single state in the skeleton automaton and at one of the states in the new automaton which correspond to it. We use the transitions from the old automaton to determine which states to construct. Note: there can be more than one state in the automaton which corresponds to a state in the old automaton. This is because we are looking at a different polarity key, so that whereas two candidates automaton may transition to the same state in the old automaton, their polarity effects for the new key will make them diverge in the new automaton. \begin{code}
buildPolAut' :: PolarityKey -> PolTransFn -> PolAut -> PolAut
-- for each literal... (this is implicit in the automaton state grouping)
buildPolAut' fk skeleton aut =
let -- previously created candidates
prev = head $states aut -- create the next batch of states fn st ap = buildPolAutHelper fk skeleton st ap (newAut,newStates) = foldr fn (aut,Set.empty) prev next = Set.toList newStates : states aut -- recursive step to the next literal in if Set.null newStates then aut else buildPolAut' fk skeleton (newAut { states = next }) -- given a previously created state... buildPolAutHelper :: PolarityKey -> PolTransFn -> PolState -> (PolAut,Set.Set PolState) -> (PolAut,Set.Set PolState) buildPolAutHelper fk skeleton st (aut,prev) = let -- reconstruct the skeleton state used to build st PolSt pr ex (po1:skelpo1) = st skelSt = PolSt pr ex skelpo1 -- for each transition out of the current state -- nb: a transition is (next state, [labels to that state]) trans = Map.toList$ Map.findWithDefault Map.empty skelSt skeleton
result = foldr addT (aut,prev) trans
-- . for each label to the next state st2
-- .. calculate a new state and add a transition to it
addTS skel2 tr (a,n) = (addTrans a st tr st2, Set.insert st2 n)
where st2 = newSt tr skel2
--
newSt :: Maybe TagElem -> PolState -> PolState
newSt t skel2 = PolSt pr2 ex2 (po2:skelPo2)
where
PolSt pr2 ex2 skelPo2 = skel2
po2 = po1 !+! Map.findWithDefault (ival 0) fk pol
pol = case t of Nothing -> Map.empty
Just t2 -> tpolarities t2
in result

\end{code} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \subsection{Pruning} \label{sec:automaton_pruning} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Any path through the automaton which does not lead to final polarity of zero sum can now be eliminated. We do this by stepping recursively backwards from the final states: \begin{code}
prune :: PolAut -> PolAut
prune aut =
let theStates   = states aut
final       = finalSt aut
-- (remember that states is a list of lists)
nextStates  = tail theStates
nonFinal    = (lastStates \\ final)
-- the helper function will rebuild the state list
firstAut    = aut { states = [] }
pruned      = prune' (nonFinal:nextStates) firstAut
statesPruned = states pruned
tailPruned   = tail statesPruned
in if (null theStates)
then aut
else pruned { states = (headPruned ++ final) : tailPruned }

\end{code} The pruning algorithm takes as arguments a list of states to process. Among these, any state which does not have outgoing transitions is placed on the blacklist. We remove all transitions to the blacklist and all states that only transition to the blacklist, and then we repeat pruning, with a next batch of states. Finally, we return the pruned automaton. Note: in order for this to work, it is essential that the final states are *not* included in the list of states to process. \begin{code}
prune' :: [[PolState]] -> PolAut -> PolAut
prune' [] oldAut = oldAut { states = reverse $states oldAut } prune' (sts:next) oldAut = let -- calculate the blacklist oldT = transitions oldAut oldSt = states oldAut transFrom st = Map.lookup st oldT blacklist = filter (isNothing.transFrom) sts -- given a st: filter out all transitions to the blacklist allTrans = Map.toList$ transitions oldAut
-- delete all transitions to the blacklist
miniTrim = Map.filterWithKey (\k _ -> not (k elem blacklist))
-- extra cleanup: delete from map states that only transition to the blacklist
trim = Map.filterWithKey (\k m -> not (k elem blacklist || Map.null m))
-- execute the kill and miniKill filters
newT = trim $Map.fromList [ (st2, miniTrim m) | (st2,m) <- allTrans ] -- new list of states and new automaton newSts = sts \\ blacklist newAut = oldAut { transitions = newT, states = newSts : oldSt } {- -- debugging code debugstr = "blacklist: [\n" ++ debugstr' ++ "]" debugstr' = concat$ intersperse "\n" $map showSt blacklist showSt (PolSt pr ex po) = showPr pr ++ showEx ex ++ showPo po showPr (_,pr,_) = pr ++ " " showPo po = concat$ intersperse "," $map show po showEx ex = if (null ex) then "" else (showSem ex) -} -- recursive step in if null blacklist then oldAut { states = (reverse oldSt) ++ (sts:next) } else prune' next newAut  \end{code} % ==================================================================== \section{Zero-literal semantics} \label{sec:multiuse} \label{semantic_weights} \label{sec:nullsem} \label{sec:co-anchors} % ==================================================================== Lexical items with a \jargon{null semantics} typically correspond to functions words: complementisers \natlang{(John likes \textbf{to} read.)}, subcategorised prepositions \natlang{(Mary accuses John \textbf{of} cheating.)}. Such items need not be lexical items at all. We can exploit TAG's support for trees with multiple anchors, by treating them as co-anchors to some primary lexical item. The English infinitival \natlang{to}, for example, can appear in the tree \tautree{to~take} as \koweytree{s(comp(to),v(take),np$\downarrow$)}. On the other hand, pronouns have a \jargon{zero-literal} semantics, one which is not null, but which consists only of a variable index. For example, the pronoun \natlang{she} in (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_she}) has semantics \semexpr{s} and in (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_control}), \natlang{he} has the semantics \semexpr{j}. {\footnotesize \eenumsentence{\label{ex:pronoun_pol} \item \label{ex:pronoun_pol_sue} \semexpr{joe(j), sue(s), book(b), lend(l,j,b,s), boring(b) } \\ \natlang{Joe lends Sue a boring book.} % Note for visually impaired readers: ignore anything with \color{white}. % It is used as a form of indentation to help sighted users. \item \label{ex:pronoun_pol_she} \semexpr{joe(j), {\color{white}sue(s),} book(b), lend(l,j,b,s), boring(b) } \\ \natlang{Joe lends her a boring book.} } \eenumsentence{\label{ex:pronoun_pol_control} \item[{\color{white}a.}] \label{ex:pronoun_pol_control_inf} \semexpr{joe(j), sue(s), leave(l,j), promise(p,j,s,l)} \\ \natlang{Joe promises Sue to leave.} \\ or \natlang{Joe promises Sue that he would leave.} }} In figure \ref{fig:polarity_automaton_zerolit_bad}, we compare the construction of polarity automata for (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_sue}, left) and (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_she}, right). Building an automaton for (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_she}) fails because \tautree{sue} is not available to cancel the negative polarities for \tautree{lends}; instead, a pronoun must be used to take its place. The problem is that the selection of a lexical items is only triggered when the construction algorithm visits one of its semantic literals. Since pronoun semantics have zero literals, they are \emph{never} selected. Making pronouns visible to the construction algorithm would require us to count the indices from the input semantics. Each index refers to an entity. This entity must be consumed'' by a syntactic functor (e.g. a verb) and provided'' by a syntactic argument (e.g. a noun). %\footnote{This also holds true for sentences like \natlang{Joe sings %badly and Sue sings well}, \semexpr{sing(s1,j) good(s1), sing(s2,m), %bad(s2)} because each usage of \natlang{sings} actually corresponds to a %different lexical item, \tautree{sings1} with the semantics %\semexpr{sings(s1,j)} and \tautree{sings2} with \semexpr{sings(s2,m)}.}. \begin{figure}[htpb] \begin{center} \includegraphics[scale=0.25]{images/zeroaut-noun.pdf} \includegraphics[scale=0.25]{images/zeroaut-sans.pdf} \end{center} \vspace{-0.4cm} \caption{Difficulty with zero-literal semantics.} \label{fig:polarity_automaton_zerolit_bad} \end{figure} We make this explicit by annotating the semantics of the lexical input (that is the set of lexical items selected on the basis of the input semantics) with a form of polarities. Roughly, nouns provide indices\footnote{except for predicative nouns, which like verbs, are semantic functors} ($+$), modifiers leave them unaffected, and verbs consume them ($-$). Predicting pronouns is then a matter of counting the indices. If the positive and negative indices cancel each other out, no pronouns are required. If there are more negative indices than positive ones, then as many pronouns are required as there are negative excess indices. In the table below, we show how the example semantics above may be annotated and how many negative excess indices result: \begin{center} {\footnotesize \begin{tabular}{|l|r|r|r|} \hline \multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\bf semantics} & {\bf \tt b} & {\bf \tt j} & {\bf \tt s} \\ \hline \semexpr{joe(+j) sue(+s) book(+b) lend(l,-j,-b,-s) boring(b)} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{0} \\ \hline \semexpr{joe(+j) {\color{white}sue(+s)} book(+b) lend(l,-j,-b,-s) boring(b)} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{1} \\ \hline \semexpr{joe(+j) sue(+s) leave(l,-j,-s) promise(p,{\color{white}-}j,-s,l)} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{0} \\ \hline \semexpr{joe(+j) sue(+s) leave(l,-j,-s) promise(p,-j,-s,l)} & \semexpr{0} & \semexpr{1} & \semexpr{0} \\ \hline \end{tabular} } \end{center} Counting surplus indices allows us to establish the number of pronouns used and thus gives us the information needed to build polarity automata. We implement this by introducing a virtual literal for negative excess index, and having that literal be realised by pronouns. Building the polarity automaton as normal yields lexical combinations with the required number of pronouns, as in figure \ref{fig:polarity_automaton_zerolit}. \begin{figure}[htpb] \begin{center} \includegraphics[scale=0.25]{images/zeroaut-pron.pdf} \end{center} \vspace{-0.4cm} \caption{Constructing a polarity automaton with zero-literal semantics.} \label{fig:polarity_automaton_zerolit} \end{figure} \label{different_sem_annotations} The sitation is more complicated where the lexical input contains lexical items with different annotations for the same semantics. For instance, the control verb \natlang{promise} has two forms: one which solicits an infinitive as in \natlang{promise to leave}, and one which solicits a declarative clause as in \natlang{promise that he would leave}. This means two different counts of subject index \semexpr{j} in (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_control}) : zero for the form that subcategorises for the infinitive, or one for the declarative. But to build a single automaton, these counts must be reconciled, i.e., how many virtual literals do we introduce for \semexpr{j}, zero or one? The answer is to introduce enough virtual literals to satisfy the largest demand, and then use the multi-literal extension to support alternate forms with a smaller demand. To handle example (\ref{ex:pronoun_pol_control}), we introduce one virtual literal for \semexpr{j} so that the declarative form can be produced, and treat the soliciting \natlang{promise} as though its semantics includes that literal along with its regular semantics (figure \ref{fig:polarity_automaton_zerolit_promise}). In other words, the infinitive-soliciting form is treated as if it already fulfils the role of a pronoun, and does not need one in its lexical combination. \begin{figure}[htpb] \begin{center} \includegraphics[scale=0.25]{images/zeroaut-promise.pdf} \end{center} \vspace{-0.4cm} \caption{Constructing a polarity automaton with zero-literal semantics.} \label{fig:polarity_automaton_zerolit_promise} \end{figure} We insert pronouns into the input semantics using the following process: \begin{enumerate} \item For each literal in the input semantics, establish the smallest charge for each of its semantic indices. \item Cancel out the polarities for every index in the input semantics. \item Compensate for any uncancelled negative polarities by an adding an additional literal to the input semantics -- a pronoun -- for every negative charge. \item Finally, deal with the problem of lexical items who require fewer pronouns than predicted by inserting the excess pronouns in their extra literal semantics (see page \pageref{different_sem_annotations}) \end{enumerate} \begin{code} type PredLite = (String,[GeniVal]) -- handle is head of arg list type SemWeightMap = Map.Map PredLite SemPols -- | Returns a modified input semantics and lexical selection in which pronouns -- are properly accounted for. fixPronouns :: (Sem,[TagElem]) -> (Sem,[TagElem]) fixPronouns (tsem,cands) = let -- part 1 (for each literal get smallest charge for each idx) getpols :: TagElem -> [ (PredLite,SemPols) ] getpols x = zip [ (show p, h:as) | (h,p,as) <- tsemantics x ] (tsempols x) sempols :: [ (PredLite,SemPols) ] sempols = concatMap getpols cands usagemap :: SemWeightMap usagemap = Map.fromListWith (zipWith min) sempols -- part 2 (cancel sem polarities) chargemap :: Map.Map GeniVal Int -- index to charge chargemap = Map.fromListWith (+)$ concatMap clump $Map.toList usagemap where clump ((_,is),ps) = zip is ps -- part 3 (adding extra semantics) indices = concatMap fn (Map.toList chargemap) where fn (i,c) = replicate (negate c) i -- the extra columns extraSem = map indexPred indices tsem2 = sortSem (tsem ++ extraSem) -- zero-literal semantic items to realise the extra columns zlit = filter (null.tsemantics) cands cands2 = (cands \\ zlit) ++ concatMap fn indices where fn i = map (tweak i) zlit tweak i x = assignIndex i$ x { tsemantics = [indexPred i] }
-- part 4 (insert excess pronouns in tree sem)
comparefn :: GeniVal -> Int -> Int -> [GeniVal]
comparefn i ct cm = if cm < ct then extra else []
where maxNeeded = Map.findWithDefault 0 i chargemap -- cap the number added
extra = replicate (min (negate maxNeeded) (ct - cm)) i
comparePron :: (PredLite,SemPols) -> [GeniVal]
comparePron (lit,c1) = concat $zipWith3 comparefn idxs c1 c2 where idxs = snd lit c2 = Map.findWithDefault [] lit usagemap addextra :: TagElem -> TagElem addextra c = c { tsemantics = sortSem (sem ++ extra) } where sem = tsemantics c extra = map indexPred$ concatMap comparePron (getpols c)
in (tsem2, cands3)

-- | Builds a fake semantic predicate that the index counting mechanism uses to
--   represent extra columns.
indexPred :: GeniVal -> Pred
indexPred x = (x, GAnon, [])

-- Returns True if the given literal was introduced by the index counting mechanism
isExtraCol :: Pred -> Bool
isExtraCol (_,GAnon,[]) = True
isExtraCol _            = False

\end{code} \paragraph{assignIndex} is a useful way to restrict the behaviour of null semantic items like pronouns using the information generated by the index counting mechanism. The problem with null semantic items is that their indices are not set, which means that they could potentially combine with any other tree. To make things more efficient, we can set the index of these items and thus reduce the number of spurious combinations. Notes \begin{itemize} %\item These combinations could produce false results if the %input has to use multiple pronouns. For example, if you wanted to say %something like \natlang{John promises Mary to convince Paul to give her % his book}, these combinations could instead produce \natlang{give him % \textbf{her} book}. \item This function works by FS unification on the root node of the tree with the \fs{\it idx:i\\}. If unification is not possible, we simply return the tree as is. \item This function renames the tree by appending the index to its name \end{itemize} \begin{code}
assignIndex :: GeniVal -> TagElem -> TagElem
assignIndex i te =
let idxfs = [ AvPair __idx__ i ]
oldt  = ttree te
oldr  = root oldt
tfup  = gup oldr
--
in case unifyFeat tfup idxfs of
Nothing          -> te
Just (gup2, sub) -> replace sub $te { ttree = newt } where newt = rootUpd oldt$ oldr { gup = gup2 }

\end{code} % ==================================================================== \section{Further optimisations} % ==================================================================== \subsection{Lexical filtering} \label{fn:detectIdxConstraints} Lexical filtering allows the user to constrain the lexical selection to only those items that contain a certain property, for example, the realising an item as a cleft. The idea is that the user provides an input like \verb$idxconstraints:[cleft:j]$, which means that the lexical selection must include exactly one tree with the property cleft:j in its interface. This mechanism works as pre-processing step after lexical selection and before polarity automaton construction, in conjuction with the ExtraPolarities mechanism. What we do is \begin{enumerate} \item Preprocess the lexically selected trees; any tree which has a a desired property (e.g. cleft:j) in its interface is assigned a positive polarity for that property (+cleft:j) \item Add all the index constraints as negative extra polarities (-cleft:j) \end{enumerate} Note: we assume the index constraints and interface are sorted; also, we prefix the index constraint polarities with a .'' because they are likely to be very powerful filters and we would like them to be used first. \begin{code}
detectIdxConstraints :: Flist -> Flist -> PolMap
detectIdxConstraints cs interface =
let matches  = intersect cs interface
matchStr = map idxConstraintKey matches
in Map.fromList $zip matchStr ((repeat.ival) 1) declareIdxConstraints :: Flist -> PolMap declareIdxConstraints = Map.fromList . (map declare) where declare c = (idxConstraintKey c, minusone) minusone = ival (-1) idxConstraintKey :: AvPair -> PolarityKey idxConstraintKey = PolarityKey . ('.' :) . showAv  \end{code} \subsection{Automatic detection} Automatic detection is not an optimisation in itself, but a means to make grammar development with polarities more convenient. \paragraph{Which attributes should we use?} Our detection process looks for attributes which are defined on \emph{all} subst and root nodes of the lexically selected items. Note that this should typically give you the \verb!cat! and \verb!idx! polarities. \begin{code} detectPolFeatures :: [TagElem] -> [String] detectPolFeatures tes = let -- only initial trees need be counted; in aux trees, the -- root node is implicitly canceled by the foot node rfeats, sfeats :: [Flist] rfeats = map (gdown.root.ttree)$ filter (\t -> ttype t == Initial) tes
sfeats = [ concat s | s <- map substTops tes, (not.null) s ]
--
attrs :: Flist -> [String]
attrs avs = [ a | AvPair a v <- avs, isConst v ]
theAttributes = map attrs $rfeats ++ sfeats in if null tes then [] else foldr1 intersect theAttributes -- FIXME: temporary HACKY code - delete me as soon as possible (written -- 2006-03-30 -- -- only initial trees need be counted; in aux trees, the -- root node is implicitly canceled by the foot node detectSansIdx :: [TagElem] -> [TagElem] detectSansIdx = let rfeats t = (gdown.root.ttree) t feats t | ttype t == Initial = concat$ rfeats t : substTops t
feats  t = concat $substTops t attrs avs = [ a | AvPair a v <- avs, isConst v ] hasIdx t = __idx__ elem (attrs.feats$ t) || (ttype t /= Initial && (null $substTops t)) in filter (not.hasIdx)  \end{code} \paragraph{The polarity values} First the simplified explanation: we assign every tree with a$-1$charge for every category for every substitution node it has. Additionally, we assign every initial tree with a$+1$charge for the category of its root node. So for example, the tree s(n$\downarrow$, cl$\downarrow$, v(aime), n$\downarrow$) should have the following polarities: s +1, cl -1, n -2. These charges are added to any that previously been defined in the grammar. Now what really happens: we treat automaton polarities as intervals, not as single integers! For the most part, nothing changes from the simplified explanation. Where we added a$-1$charge before, we now add a$(-1,-1)$charge. Similarly, we where added a$+1$charge, we now add$(1,1)$. So what's the point of all this? It helps us deal with atomic disjunction. \subparagraph{Atomic disjunction} Say we encounter a substitution node whose category is either cl or n. What we do is add the polarities$cl (-1,0), n (-1,0)$which means that there are anywhere from -1 to 0 cl, and for n. FIXME: What kind of sucks about all this though is that this slightly worsens the filter because it allows for both cl and n to be$-1$(or$0$) at the same time. It would be nice to have some kind of mutual exclusion working. \begin{code} detectPols :: Set.Set PolarityAttr -> [TagElem] -> [TagElem] detectPols attrs = map (detectPolsH attrs) detectPolsH :: Set.Set PolarityAttr -> TagElem -> TagElem detectPolsH polarityAttrs te = let detectOrBust x1 x2 x3 x4 = case detectPolarity x1 x2 x3 x4 of PD_UserError e -> error$ e ++ " in " ++ tgIdName te -- ideally we'd propagate this
PD_Nothing     -> []
PD_Just p      -> p
--
rup   = gup . root .ttree $te rdown = gdown . root . ttree$ te
--
catAttr = SimplePolarityAttr "cat"
rstuffLite  = concatMap (\v -> detectOrBust 1 v rup rdown)
$Set.toList$ Set.delete catAttr polarityAttrs
rstuff :: [(PolarityKey,Interval)]
rstuff   = if Set.member catAttr polarityAttrs
then -- cat is considered global to the whole tree to be
-- robust, we grab it from the top feature
detectOrBust 1 catAttr rup rup ++ rstuffLite
else rstuffLite
substuff :: [(PolarityKey,Interval)]
substuff = let tops = substTops te
detect :: PolarityAttr -> [(PolarityKey,Interval)]
detect v = concat $zipWith (detectOrBust (-1) v) tops tops in concatMap detect$ Set.toList polarityAttrs
-- substs and roots
pols  = case ttype te of
Initial -> substuff ++ rstuff
_       -> substuff
--
oldfm = tpolarities te
in te { tpolarities = foldr addPol oldfm pols }

__cat__, __idx__  :: String
__cat__  = "cat"
__idx__  = "idx"

data PolarityDetectionResult = PD_UserError String
| PD_Nothing
| PD_Just [ (PolarityKey, Interval) ]

-- | Careful, this completely ignores any user errors
pdJusts :: [PolarityDetectionResult] -> [(PolarityKey,Interval)]
pdJusts = concatMap helper
where helper (PD_Just x) = x
helper _           = []

detectPolarity :: Int          -- ^ polarity to assign
-> PolarityAttr -- ^ attribute to look for
-> Flist        -- ^ feature structure to filter on
-> Flist        -- ^ feature structure to get value from
-> PolarityDetectionResult
detectPolarity i (RestrictedPolarityAttr cat att) filterFl fl =
case [ v | AvPair a v <- filterFl, a == __cat__ ] of
[]  -> PD_UserError $"[polarities] No category " ++ cat ++ " in:" ++ showFlist filterFl [v] -> if isJust (unify [GConst [cat]] [v]) then detectPolarityForAttr i att fl else PD_Nothing _ -> PD_UserError$ "[polarities] More than one category " ++ " in:" ++ showFlist filterFl
detectPolarity i (SimplePolarityAttr att) _ fl = detectPolarityForAttr i att fl

detectPolarityForAttr :: Int -- ^ polarity to assign
-> String
-> Flist
-> PolarityDetectionResult
detectPolarityForAttr i att fl =
case [ v | AvPair a v <- fl, a == att ] of
[]  -> PD_UserError $"[polarities] No value for attribute: " ++ att ++ " in:" ++ showFlist fl [v] -> if isConst v then PD_Just$ case prefixWith att (fromGConst v) of
[x] -> [ (PolarityKey x, ival i) ]                -- singleton
xs  -> map (\x -> (PolarityKey x, toZero i)) xs   -- interval if ambiguous
else PD_UserError $"[polarities] Non-constant value for attribute: " ++ att ++ " in:" ++ showFlist fl _ -> PD_UserError$ "[polarities] More than one value for attribute: " ++ att ++ " in:" ++ showFlist fl

toZero :: Int -> Interval
toZero x | x < 0     = (x, 0)
| otherwise = (0, x)

prefixWith :: String -> [String] -> [String]
prefixWith att = map (\x -> att ++ ('_' : x))

substNodes :: TagElem -> [GNode]
substNodes t = [ gn | gn <- (flatten.ttree) t, gtype gn == Subs ]

substTops :: TagElem -> [Flist]
substTops = map gup . substNodes

\end{code} \subsection{Chart sharing} Chart sharing is based on the idea that instead of performing a seperate generation task for each automaton path, we should do single generation task, but annotate each tree with set of the automata paths it appears on. We then allow trees on the same paths to be compared only if they are on the same path. Note: chart sharing involves some mucking around with the generation engine (see page \pageref{fn:Builder:preInit}) \begin{code}
-- | Given a list of paths (i.e. a list of list of trees)
--   return a list of trees such that each tree is annotated with the paths it
--   belongs to.
detectPolPaths :: [[TagElem]] -> [(TagElem,BitVector)]
detectPolPaths paths =
let pathFM     = detectPolPaths' Map.empty 0 paths
lookupTr k = Map.findWithDefault 0 k pathFM
in map (\k -> (k, lookupTr k)) $Map.keys pathFM type PolPathMap = Map.Map TagElem BitVector detectPolPaths' :: PolPathMap -> Int -> [[TagElem]] -> PolPathMap detectPolPaths' accFM _ [] = accFM detectPolPaths' accFM counter (path:ps) = let currentBits = shiftL 1 counter -- shift counter times the 1 bit fn f [] = f fn f (t:ts) = fn (Map.insertWith (.|.) t currentBits f) ts newFM = fn accFM path in detectPolPaths' newFM (counter+1) ps -- | Render the list of polarity automaton paths as a string showPolPaths :: BitVector -> String showPolPaths paths = let pathlist = showPolPaths' paths 1 in concat$ intersperse ", " $map show pathlist showPolPaths' :: BitVector -> Int -> [Int] showPolPaths' 0 _ = [] showPolPaths' bv counter = if b then (counter:next) else next where b = testBit bv 0 next = showPolPaths' (shiftR bv 1) (counter + 1)  \end{code} \subsection{Semantic sorting} To minimise the number of states in the polarity automaton, we could also sort the literals in the target semantics by the number of corresponding lexically selected items. The idea is to delay branching as much as possible so as to mimimise the number of states in the automaton. Let's take a hypothetical example with two semantic literals: bar (having two trees with polarties 0 and +1). foo (having one tree with polarity -1) and If we arbitrarily explored bar before foo (no semantic sorting), the resulting automaton could look like this: \begin{verbatim} bar foo (0)--+---(0)------(-1) | +---(1)------(0) \end{verbatim} With semantic sorting, we would explore foo before bar because foo has fewer items and is less likely to branch. The resulting automaton would have fewer states. \begin{verbatim} foo bar (0)-----(-1)--+---(-1) | +---(0) \end{verbatim} The hope is that this would make the polarity automata a bit faster to build, especially considering that we are working over multiple polarity keys. Note: we have to take care to count each literal for each lexical entry's semantics or else the multi-literal semantic code will choke. \begin{code} sortSemByFreq :: Sem -> [TagElem] -> Sem sortSemByFreq tsem cands = let counts = map lenfn tsem lenfn l = length$ filter fn cands
where fn x = l elem (tsemantics x)
-- note: we introduce an extra hack to push
-- index-counted extra columns to the end; just for UI reasons
sortfn a b
| isX a && isX b = compare (snd a) (snd b)
| isX a          = GT
| isX b          = LT
| otherwise      = compare (snd a) (snd b)
where isX = isExtraCol.fst
sorted = sortBy sortfn $zip tsem counts in (fst.unzip) sorted  \end{code} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \section{Types} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \begin{code} type SemMap = Map.Map Pred [TagElem] type PolMap = Map.Map PolarityKey Interval -- | Adds a new polarity item to a 'PolMap'. If there already is a polarity -- for that item, it is summed with the new polarity. addPol :: (PolarityKey,Interval) -> PolMap -> PolMap addPol (p,c) m = Map.insertWith (!+!) p c m -- | Ensures that all states and transitions in the polarity automaton -- are unique. This is a slight optimisation so that we don't have to -- repeatedly check the automaton for state uniqueness during its -- construction, but it is essential that this check be done after -- construction nubAut :: (Ord ab, Ord st) => NFA st ab -> NFA st ab nubAut aut = aut { transitions = Map.map (\e -> Map.map nub e) (transitions aut) }  \end{code} \subsection{Polarity NFA} We can define the polarity automaton as a NFA, or a five-tuple$(Q, \Sigma, \delta, q_0, q_n)$such that \begin{enumerate} \item$Q$is a set of states, each state being a tuple$(i,e,p)$where$i$is an integer (representing a single literal in the target semantics),$e$is a list of extra literals which are known by the state, and$p$is a polarity. \item$\Sigma$is the union of the sets of candidate trees for all propositions \item$q_0$is the start state$(0,[0,0])$which does not correspond to any propositions and is used strictly as a starting point. \item$q_n$is the final state$(n,[x,y])$which corresponds to the last proposition, with polarity$x \leq 0 \leq y$. \item$\delta$is the transition function between states, which we define below. \end{enumerate} Note: \begin{itemize} \item For convenience during automaton intersection, we actually define the states as being$(i, [(p_x,p_y)])$where$[(p_x,p_y)]$is a list of polarity intervals. \item We use integer$i$for each state instead of literals directly, because it is possible for the target semantics to contain the same literal twice (at least, with the index counting mechanism in place) \end{itemize} \begin{code} data PolState = PolSt Int [Pred] [(Int,Int)] -- ^ position in the input semantics, extra semantics, -- polarity interval deriving (Eq) type PolTrans = TagElem type PolAut = NFA PolState PolTrans type PolTransFn = Map.Map PolState (Map.Map PolState [Maybe PolTrans]) instance Show PolState where show (PolSt pr ex po) = show pr ++ " " ++ showSem ex ++ show po -- showPred pr ++ " " ++ showSem ex ++ show po instance Ord PolState where compare (PolSt pr1 ex1 po1) (PolSt pr2 ex2 po2) = let prC = compare pr1 pr2 expoC = compare (ex1,po1) (ex2,po2) in if (prC == EQ) then expoC else prC  \end{code} We include also some fake states which are useful for general housekeeping during the main algortihms. \begin{code} fakestate :: Int -> [Interval] -> PolState fakestate s pol = PolSt s [] pol --PolSt (0, s, [""]) [] pol -- | an initial state for polarity automata polstart :: [Interval] -> PolState polstart pol = fakestate 0 pol -- fakestate "START" pol  \end{code} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \section{Display code} \label{sec:display_pol} % ---------------------------------------------------------------------- \begin{code} -- | 'showLite' is like Show but it's only used for debugging -- TODO: is this true? class ShowLite a where showLite :: a -> String instance (ShowLite a) => ShowLite [a] where showLite x = "[" ++ (concat$ intersperse ", " $map showLite x) ++ "]" instance (ShowLite a, ShowLite b) => ShowLite (a,b) where showLite (x,y) = "(" ++ (showLite x) ++ "," ++ (showLite y) ++ ")" instance ShowLite Int where showLite = show instance ShowLite Char where showLite = show  \end{code} %\begin{code} %instance (Show st, ShowLite ab) => ShowLite (NFA st ab) where % showLite aut = % concatMap showTrans$ toList (transitions aut) % where showTrans ((st1, x), st2) = show st1 ++ showArrow x % ++ show st2 ++ "\n" % showArrow x = " --" ++ showLite x ++ "--> " % -- showSt (PolSt pr po) = show po %\end{code} \begin{code}
instance ShowLite TagElem where
showLite = idname

{-
-- | Display a SemMap in human readable text.
showLiteSm :: SemMap -> String
showLiteSm sm =
concatMap showPair $toList sm where showPair (pr, cs) = showPred pr ++ "\t: " ++ showPair' cs ++ "\n" showPair' [] = "" showPair' (te:cs) = tlIdname te ++ "[" ++ showLitePm (tpolarities te) ++ "]" ++ " " ++ showPair' cs -} -- | Display a PolMap in human-friendly text. -- The advantage is that it displays fewer quotation marks. showLitePm :: PolMap -> String showLitePm pm = let showPair (f, pol) = showInterval pol ++ fromPolarityKey f in concat$ intersperse " " $map showPair$ Map.toList pm

\end{code}