{-# LANGUAGE BangPatterns, FlexibleContexts #-} -- | -- Module : Statistics.Math -- Copyright : (c) 2009, 2011 Bryan O'Sullivan -- License : BSD3 -- -- Maintainer : bos@serpentine.com -- Stability : experimental -- Portability : portable -- -- Mathematical functions for statistics. module Statistics.Math ( -- * Functions choose -- ** Beta function , logBeta , incompleteBeta , incompleteBeta_ , invIncompleteBeta -- ** Chebyshev polynomials -- $chebyshev , chebyshev , chebyshevBroucke -- ** Factorial , factorial , logFactorial -- ** Gamma function , logGamma , logGammaL , incompleteGamma , invIncompleteGamma -- ** Logarithm , log1p , log2 -- ** Stirling's approximation , stirlingError , bd0 -- * References -- $references ) where import Data.Bits ((.&.), (.|.), shiftR) import Data.Int (Int64) import Data.Word (Word64) import Statistics.Constants (m_epsilon, m_sqrt_2_pi, m_ln_sqrt_2_pi, m_NaN, m_neg_inf, m_pos_inf) import Statistics.Distribution (cumulative) import Statistics.Distribution.Normal (standard) import qualified Data.Vector.Unboxed as U import qualified Data.Vector.Generic as G -- $chebyshev -- -- A Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind is defined by the -- following recurrence: -- -- > t 0 _ = 1 -- > t 1 x = x -- > t n x = 2 * x * t (n-1) x - t (n-2) x data C = C {-# UNPACK #-} !Double {-# UNPACK #-} !Double -- | Evaluate a Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind. Uses -- Clenshaw's algorithm. chebyshev :: (G.Vector v Double) => Double -- ^ Parameter of each function. -> v Double -- ^ Coefficients of each polynomial term, in increasing order. -> Double chebyshev x a = fini . G.foldr' step (C 0 0) . G.tail $ a where step k (C b0 b1) = C (k + x2 * b0 - b1) b0 fini (C b0 b1) = G.head a + x * b0 - b1 x2 = x * 2 {-# INLINE chebyshev #-} data B = B {-# UNPACK #-} !Double {-# UNPACK #-} !Double {-# UNPACK #-} !Double -- | Evaluate a Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind. Uses Broucke's -- ECHEB algorithm, and his convention for coefficient handling, and so -- gives different results than 'chebyshev' for the same inputs. chebyshevBroucke :: (G.Vector v Double) => Double -- ^ Parameter of each function. -> v Double -- ^ Coefficients of each polynomial term, in increasing order. -> Double chebyshevBroucke x = fini . G.foldr' step (B 0 0 0) where step k (B b0 b1 _) = B (k + x2 * b0 - b1) b0 b1 fini (B b0 _ b2) = (b0 - b2) * 0.5 x2 = x * 2 {-# INLINE chebyshevBroucke #-} -- | Quickly compute the natural logarithm of /n/ @`choose`@ /k/, with -- no checking. logChooseFast :: Double -> Double -> Double logChooseFast n k = -log (n + 1) - logBeta (n - k + 1) (k + 1) -- | Compute the binomial coefficient /n/ @\``choose`\`@ /k/. For -- values of /k/ > 30, this uses an approximation for performance -- reasons. The approximation is accurate to 12 decimal places in the -- worst case -- -- Example: -- -- > 7 `choose` 3 == 35 choose :: Int -> Int -> Double n `choose` k | k > n = 0 | k' < 50 = U.foldl' go 1 . U.enumFromTo 1 $ k' | approx < max64 = fromIntegral . round64 $ approx | otherwise = approx where k' = min k (n-k) approx = exp $ logChooseFast (fromIntegral n) (fromIntegral k') -- Less numerically stable: -- exp $ lg (n+1) - lg (k+1) - lg (n-k+1) -- where lg = logGamma . fromIntegral go a i = a * (nk + j) / j where j = fromIntegral i :: Double nk = fromIntegral (n - k') max64 = fromIntegral (maxBound :: Int64) round64 x = round x :: Int64 data F = F {-# UNPACK #-} !Word64 {-# UNPACK #-} !Word64 -- | Compute the factorial function /n/!. Returns ∞ if the -- input is above 170 (above which the result cannot be represented by -- a 64-bit 'Double'). factorial :: Int -> Double factorial n | n < 0 = error "Statistics.Math.factorial: negative input" | n <= 1 = 1 | n <= 14 = fini . U.foldl' goLong (F 1 1) $ ns | otherwise = U.foldl' goDouble 1 ns where goDouble t k = t * fromIntegral k goLong (F z x) _ = F (z * x') x' where x' = x + 1 fini (F z _) = fromIntegral z ns = U.enumFromTo 2 n -- | Compute the natural logarithm of the factorial function. Gives -- 16 decimal digits of precision. logFactorial :: Int -> Double logFactorial n | n <= 14 = log (factorial n) | otherwise = (x - 0.5) * log x - x + 9.1893853320467e-1 + z / x where x = fromIntegral (n + 1) y = 1 / (x * x) z = ((-(5.95238095238e-4 * y) + 7.936500793651e-4) * y - 2.7777777777778e-3) * y + 8.3333333333333e-2 -- | Compute the normalized lower incomplete gamma function -- γ(/s/,/x/). Normalization means that -- γ(/s/,∞)=1. Uses Algorithm AS 239 by Shea. incompleteGamma :: Double -- ^ /s/ -> Double -- ^ /x/ -> Double incompleteGamma p x | x < 0 || p <= 0 = m_pos_inf | x == 0 = 0 | p >= 1000 = norm (3 * sqrt p * ((x/p) ** (1/3) + 1/(9*p) - 1)) | x >= 1e8 = 1 | x <= 1 || x < p = let a = p * log x - x - logGamma (p + 1) g = a + log (pearson p 1 1) in if g > limit then exp g else 0 | otherwise = let g = p * log x - x - logGamma p + log cf in if g > limit then 1 - exp g else 1 where norm = cumulative standard pearson !a !c !g | c' <= tolerance = g' | otherwise = pearson a' c' g' where a' = a + 1 c' = c * x / a' g' = g + c' cf = let a = 1 - p b = a + x + 1 p3 = x + 1 p4 = x * b in contFrac a b 0 1 x p3 p4 (p3/p4) contFrac !a !b !c !p1 !p2 !p3 !p4 !g | abs (g - rn) <= min tolerance (tolerance * rn) = g | otherwise = contFrac a' b' c' (f p3) (f p4) (f p5) (f p6) rn where a' = a + 1 b' = b + 2 c' = c + 1 an = a' * c' p5 = b' * p3 - an * p1 p6 = b' * p4 - an * p2 rn = p5 / p6 f n | abs p5 > overflow = n / overflow | otherwise = n limit = -88 tolerance = 1e-14 overflow = 1e37 -- Adapted from Numerical Recipes §6.2.1 -- | Inverse incomplete gamma function. It's approximately inverse of -- 'incompleteGamma' for the same /s/. So following equality -- approximately holds: -- -- > invIncompleteGamma s . incompleteGamma s = id -- -- For @invIncompleteGamma s p@ /s/ must be positive and /p/ must be -- in [0,1] range. invIncompleteGamma :: Double -> Double -> Double invIncompleteGamma a p | a <= 0 = error $ "Statistics.Math.invIncompleteGamma: a must be positive. Got: " ++ show a | p < 0 || p > 1 = error $ "Statistics.Math.invIncompleteGamma: p must be in [0,1] range. Got: " ++ show p | p == 0 = 0 | p == 1 = 1 / 0 | otherwise = loop 0 guess where -- Solve equation γ(a,x) = p using Halley method loop :: Int -> Double -> Double loop i x | i >= 12 = x | otherwise = let -- Value of γ(a,x) - p f = incompleteGamma a x - p -- dγ(a,x)/dx f' | a > 1 = afac * exp( -(x - a1) + a1 * (log x - lna1)) | otherwise = exp( -x + a1 * log x - gln) u = f / f' -- Halley correction to Newton-Rapson step corr = u * (a1 / x - 1) dx = u / (1 - 0.5 * min 1.0 corr) -- New approximation to x x' | x < dx = 0.5 * x -- Do not go below 0 | otherwise = x - dx in if abs dx < eps * x' then x' else loop (i+1) x' -- Calculate inital guess for root guess -- | a > 1 = let t = sqrt $ -2 * log(if p < 0.5 then p else 1 - p) x1 = (2.30753 + t * 0.27061) / (1 + t * (0.99229 + t * 0.04481)) - t x2 = if p < 0.5 then -x1 else x1 in max 1e-3 (a * (1 - 1/(9*a) - x2 / (3 * sqrt a)) ** 3) -- For a <= 1 use following approximations: -- γ(a,1) ≈ 0.253a + 0.12a² -- -- γ(a,x) ≈ γ(a,1)·x^a x < 1 -- γ(a,x) ≈ γ(a,1) + (1 - γ(a,1))(1 - exp(1 - x)) x >= 1 | otherwise = let t = 1 - a * (0.253 + a*0.12) in if p < t then (p / t) ** (1 / a) else 1 - log( 1 - (p-t) / (1-t)) -- Constants a1 = a - 1 lna1 = log a1 afac = exp( a1 * (lna1 - 1) - gln ) gln = logGamma a eps = 1e-8 -- Adapted from http://people.sc.fsu.edu/~burkardt/f_src/asa245/asa245.html -- | Compute the logarithm of the gamma function Γ(/x/). Uses -- Algorithm AS 245 by Macleod. -- -- Gives an accuracy of 10–12 significant decimal digits, except -- for small regions around /x/ = 1 and /x/ = 2, where the function -- goes to zero. For greater accuracy, use 'logGammaL'. -- -- Returns ∞ if the input is outside of the range (0 < /x/ -- ≤ 1e305). logGamma :: Double -> Double logGamma x | x <= 0 = m_pos_inf | x < 1.5 = a + c * ((((r1_4 * b + r1_3) * b + r1_2) * b + r1_1) * b + r1_0) / ((((b + r1_8) * b + r1_7) * b + r1_6) * b + r1_5) | x < 4 = (x - 2) * ((((r2_4 * x + r2_3) * x + r2_2) * x + r2_1) * x + r2_0) / ((((x + r2_8) * x + r2_7) * x + r2_6) * x + r2_5) | x < 12 = ((((r3_4 * x + r3_3) * x + r3_2) * x + r3_1) * x + r3_0) / ((((x + r3_8) * x + r3_7) * x + r3_6) * x + r3_5) | x > 5.1e5 = k | otherwise = k + x1 * ((r4_2 * x2 + r4_1) * x2 + r4_0) / ((x2 + r4_4) * x2 + r4_3) where (a , b , c) | x < 0.5 = (-y , x + 1 , x) | otherwise = (0 , x , x - 1) y = log x k = x * (y-1) - 0.5 * y + alr2pi alr2pi = 0.918938533204673 x1 = 1 / x x2 = x1 * x1 r1_0 = -2.66685511495; r1_1 = -24.4387534237; r1_2 = -21.9698958928 r1_3 = 11.1667541262; r1_4 = 3.13060547623; r1_5 = 0.607771387771 r1_6 = 11.9400905721; r1_7 = 31.4690115749; r1_8 = 15.2346874070 r2_0 = -78.3359299449; r2_1 = -142.046296688; r2_2 = 137.519416416 r2_3 = 78.6994924154; r2_4 = 4.16438922228; r2_5 = 47.0668766060 r2_6 = 313.399215894; r2_7 = 263.505074721; r2_8 = 43.3400022514 r3_0 = -2.12159572323e5; r3_1 = 2.30661510616e5; r3_2 = 2.74647644705e4 r3_3 = -4.02621119975e4; r3_4 = -2.29660729780e3; r3_5 = -1.16328495004e5 r3_6 = -1.46025937511e5; r3_7 = -2.42357409629e4; r3_8 = -5.70691009324e2 r4_0 = 0.279195317918525; r4_1 = 0.4917317610505968; r4_2 = 0.0692910599291889; r4_3 = 3.350343815022304 r4_4 = 6.012459259764103 data L = L {-# UNPACK #-} !Double {-# UNPACK #-} !Double -- | Compute the logarithm of the gamma function, Γ(/x/). Uses a -- Lanczos approximation. -- -- This function is slower than 'logGamma', but gives 14 or more -- significant decimal digits of accuracy, except around /x/ = 1 and -- /x/ = 2, where the function goes to zero. -- -- Returns ∞ if the input is outside of the range (0 < /x/ -- ≤ 1e305). logGammaL :: Double -> Double logGammaL x | x <= 0 = m_pos_inf | otherwise = fini . U.foldl' go (L 0 (x+7)) $ a where fini (L l _) = log (l+a0) + log m_sqrt_2_pi - x65 + (x-0.5) * log x65 go (L l t) k = L (l + k / t) (t-1) x65 = x + 6.5 a0 = 0.9999999999995183 a = U.fromList [ 0.1659470187408462e-06 , 0.9934937113930748e-05 , -0.1385710331296526 , 12.50734324009056 , -176.6150291498386 , 771.3234287757674 , -1259.139216722289 , 676.5203681218835 ] -- | Compute the log gamma correction factor for @x@ ≥ 10. This -- correction factor is suitable for an alternate (but less -- numerically accurate) definition of 'logGamma': -- -- >lgg x = 0.5 * log(2*pi) + (x-0.5) * log x - x + logGammaCorrection x logGammaCorrection :: Double -> Double logGammaCorrection x | x < 10 = m_NaN | x < big = chebyshevBroucke (t * t * 2 - 1) coeffs / x | otherwise = 1 / (x * 12) where big = 94906265.62425156 t = 10 / x coeffs = U.fromList [ 0.1666389480451863247205729650822e+0, -0.1384948176067563840732986059135e-4, 0.9810825646924729426157171547487e-8, -0.1809129475572494194263306266719e-10, 0.6221098041892605227126015543416e-13, -0.3399615005417721944303330599666e-15, 0.2683181998482698748957538846666e-17 ] -- | Compute the natural logarithm of the beta function. logBeta :: Double -> Double -> Double logBeta a b | p < 0 = m_NaN | p == 0 = m_pos_inf | p >= 10 = log q * (-0.5) + m_ln_sqrt_2_pi + logGammaCorrection p + c + (p - 0.5) * log ppq + q * log1p(-ppq) | q >= 10 = logGamma p + c + p - p * log pq + (q - 0.5) * log1p(-ppq) | otherwise = logGamma p + logGamma q - logGamma pq where p = min a b q = max a b ppq = p / pq pq = p + q c = logGammaCorrection q - logGammaCorrection pq -- | Regularized incomplete beta function. Uses algorithm AS63 by -- Majumder abd Bhattachrjee. incompleteBeta :: Double -- ^ /p/ > 0 -> Double -- ^ /q/ > 0 -> Double -- ^ /x/, must lie in [0,1] range -> Double incompleteBeta p q = incompleteBeta_ (logBeta p q) p q -- | Regularized incomplete beta function. Same as 'incompleteBeta' -- but also takes value of lo incompleteBeta_ :: Double -- ^ logarithm of beta function -> Double -- ^ /p/ > 0 -> Double -- ^ /q/ > 0 -> Double -- ^ /x/, must lie in [0,1] range -> Double incompleteBeta_ beta p q x | p <= 0 || q <= 0 = error "p <= 0 || q <= 0" | x < 0 || x > 1 = error "x < 0 || x > 1" | x == 0 || x == 1 = x | p >= (p+q) * x = incompleteBetaWorker beta p q x | otherwise = 1 - incompleteBetaWorker beta q p (1 - x) -- Worker for incomplete beta function. It is separate function to -- avoid confusion with parameter during parameter swapping incompleteBetaWorker :: Double -> Double -> Double -> Double -> Double incompleteBetaWorker beta p q x = loop (p+q) (truncate $ q + cx * (p+q) :: Int) 1 1 1 where -- Constants eps = 1e-15 cx = 1 - x -- Loop loop psq ns ai term betain | done = betain' * exp( p * log x + (q - 1) * log cx - beta) / p | otherwise = loop psq' (ns - 1) (ai + 1) term' betain' where -- New values term' = term * fact / (p + ai) betain' = betain + term' fact | ns > 0 = (q - ai) * x/cx | ns == 0 = (q - ai) * x | otherwise = psq * x -- Iterations are complete done = db <= eps && db <= eps*betain' where db = abs term' psq' = if ns < 0 then psq + 1 else psq -- | Compute inverse of regularized incomplete beta function. Uses -- initial approximation from AS109 and Halley method to solve equation. invIncompleteBeta :: Double -- ^ /p/ -> Double -- ^ /q/ -> Double -- ^ /a/ -> Double invIncompleteBeta p q a | p <= 0 || q <= 0 = error "p <= 0 || q <= 0" | a < 0 || a > 1 = error "bad a" | a == 0 || a == 1 = a | a > 0.5 = 1 - invIncompleteBetaWorker (logBeta p q) q p (1 - a) | otherwise = invIncompleteBetaWorker (logBeta p q) p q a invIncompleteBetaWorker :: Double -> Double -> Double -> Double -> Double invIncompleteBetaWorker beta p q a = loop (0::Int) guess where p1 = p - 1 q1 = q - 1 -- Solve equation using Halley method loop !i !x | x == 0 || x == 1 = x | i >= 10 = x | abs dx <= 16 * m_epsilon * x = x | otherwise = loop (i+1) x' where f = incompleteBeta_ beta p q x - a f' = exp $ p1 * log x + q1 * log (1 - x) - beta u = f / f' dx = u / (1 - 0.5 * min 1 (u * (p1 / x - q1 / (1 - x)))) x' | z < 0 = x / 2 | z > 1 = (x + 1) / 2 | otherwise = z where z = x - dx -- Calculate initial guess guess | p > 1 && q > 1 = let rr = (y*y - 3) / 6 ss = 1 / (2*p - 1) tt = 1 / (2*q - 1) hh = 2 / (ss + tt) ww = y * sqrt(hh + rr) / hh - (tt - ss) * (rr + 5/6 - 2 / (3 * hh)) in p / (p + q * exp(2 * ww)) | t' <= 0 = 1 - exp( (log((1 - a) * q) + beta) / q ) | t'' <= 1 = exp( (log(a * p) + beta) / p ) | otherwise = 1 - 2 / (t'' + 1) where r = sqrt ( - log ( a * a ) ) y = r - ( 2.30753 + 0.27061 * r ) / ( 1.0 + ( 0.99229 + 0.04481 * r ) * r ) t = 1 / (9 * q) t' = 2 * q * (1 - t + y * sqrt t) ** 3 t'' = (4*p + 2*q - 2) / t' -- | Compute the natural logarithm of 1 + @x@. This is accurate even -- for values of @x@ near zero, where use of @log(1+x)@ would lose -- precision. log1p :: Double -> Double log1p x | x == 0 = 0 | x == -1 = m_neg_inf | x < -1 = m_NaN | x' < m_epsilon * 0.5 = x | (x >= 0 && x < 1e-8) || (x >= -1e-9 && x < 0) = x * (1 - x * 0.5) | x' < 0.375 = x * (1 - x * chebyshevBroucke (x / 0.375) coeffs) | otherwise = log (1 + x) where x' = abs x coeffs = U.fromList [ 0.10378693562743769800686267719098e+1, -0.13364301504908918098766041553133e+0, 0.19408249135520563357926199374750e-1, -0.30107551127535777690376537776592e-2, 0.48694614797154850090456366509137e-3, -0.81054881893175356066809943008622e-4, 0.13778847799559524782938251496059e-4, -0.23802210894358970251369992914935e-5, 0.41640416213865183476391859901989e-6, -0.73595828378075994984266837031998e-7, 0.13117611876241674949152294345011e-7, -0.23546709317742425136696092330175e-8, 0.42522773276034997775638052962567e-9, -0.77190894134840796826108107493300e-10, 0.14075746481359069909215356472191e-10, -0.25769072058024680627537078627584e-11, 0.47342406666294421849154395005938e-12, -0.87249012674742641745301263292675e-13, 0.16124614902740551465739833119115e-13, -0.29875652015665773006710792416815e-14, 0.55480701209082887983041321697279e-15, -0.10324619158271569595141333961932e-15 ] -- | Calculate the error term of the Stirling approximation. This is -- only defined for non-negative values. -- -- > stirlingError @n@ = @log(n!) - log(sqrt(2*pi*n)*(n/e)^n) stirlingError :: Double -> Double stirlingError n | n <= 15.0 = case properFraction (n+n) of (i,0) -> sfe `U.unsafeIndex` i _ -> logGamma (n+1.0) - (n+0.5) * log n + n - m_ln_sqrt_2_pi | n > 500 = (s0-s1/nn)/n | n > 80 = (s0-(s1-s2/nn)/nn)/n | n > 35 = (s0-(s1-(s2-s3/nn)/nn)/nn)/n | otherwise = (s0-(s1-(s2-(s3-s4/nn)/nn)/nn)/nn)/n where nn = n*n s0 = 0.083333333333333333333 -- 1/12 s1 = 0.00277777777777777777778 -- 1/360 s2 = 0.00079365079365079365079365 -- 1/1260 s3 = 0.000595238095238095238095238 -- 1/1680 s4 = 0.0008417508417508417508417508 -- 1/1188 sfe = U.fromList [ 0.0, 0.1534264097200273452913848, 0.0810614667953272582196702, 0.0548141210519176538961390, 0.0413406959554092940938221, 0.03316287351993628748511048, 0.02767792568499833914878929, 0.02374616365629749597132920, 0.02079067210376509311152277, 0.01848845053267318523077934, 0.01664469118982119216319487, 0.01513497322191737887351255, 0.01387612882307074799874573, 0.01281046524292022692424986, 0.01189670994589177009505572, 0.01110455975820691732662991, 0.010411265261972096497478567, 0.009799416126158803298389475, 0.009255462182712732917728637, 0.008768700134139385462952823, 0.008330563433362871256469318, 0.007934114564314020547248100, 0.007573675487951840794972024, 0.007244554301320383179543912, 0.006942840107209529865664152, 0.006665247032707682442354394, 0.006408994188004207068439631, 0.006171712263039457647532867, 0.005951370112758847735624416, 0.005746216513010115682023589, 0.005554733551962801371038690 ] -- | Evaluate the deviance term @x log(x/np) + np - x@. bd0 :: Double -- ^ @x@ -> Double -- ^ @np@ -> Double bd0 x np | isInfinite x || isInfinite np || np == 0 = m_NaN | abs x_np >= 0.1*(x+np) = x * log (x/np) - x_np | otherwise = loop 1 (ej0*vv) s0 where x_np = x - np v = x_np / (x+np) s0 = x_np * v ej0 = 2*x*v vv = v*v loop j ej s = case s + ej/(2*j+1) of s' | s' == s -> s' | otherwise -> loop (j+1) (ej*vv) s' -- | /O(log n)/ Compute the logarithm in base 2 of the given value. log2 :: Int -> Int log2 v0 | v0 <= 0 = error "Statistics.Math.log2: invalid input" | otherwise = go 5 0 v0 where go !i !r !v | i == -1 = r | v .&. b i /= 0 = let si = U.unsafeIndex sv i in go (i-1) (r .|. si) (v `shiftR` si) | otherwise = go (i-1) r v b = U.unsafeIndex bv !bv = U.fromList [0x2, 0xc, 0xf0, 0xff00, 0xffff0000, 0xffffffff00000000] !sv = U.fromList [1,2,4,8,16,32] -- $references -- -- * Broucke, R. (1973) Algorithm 446: Ten subroutines for the -- manipulation of Chebyshev series. /Communications of the ACM/ -- 16(4):254–256. -- -- * Clenshaw, C.W. (1962) Chebyshev series for mathematical -- functions. /National Physical Laboratory Mathematical Tables 5/, -- Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London. -- -- * Lanczos, C. (1964) A precision approximation of the gamma -- function. /SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis B/ -- 1:86–96. -- -- * Loader, C. (2000) Fast and Accurate Computation of Binomial -- Probabilities. -- -- * Macleod, A.J. (1989) Algorithm AS 245: A robust and reliable -- algorithm for the logarithm of the gamma function. -- /Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series C (Applied Statistics)/ -- 38(2):397–402. -- -- * Shea, B. (1988) Algorithm AS 239: Chi-squared and incomplete -- gamma integral. /Applied Statistics/ -- 37(3):466–473. -- -- * K. L. Majumder, G. P. Bhattacharjee (1973) Algorithm AS 63: The -- Incomplete Beta Integral. /Journal of the Royal Statistical -- Society. Series C (Applied Statistics)/ Vol. 22, No. 3 (1973), -- pp. 409-411. -- -- * K. L. Majumder, G. P. Bhattacharjee (1973) Algorithm AS 64: -- Inverse of the Incomplete Beta Function Ratio. /Journal of the -- Royal Statistical Society. Series C (Applied Statistics)/ -- Vol. 22, No. 3 (1973), pp. 411-414 -- -- -- * G. W. Cran, K. J. Martin and G. E. Thomas (1977) Remark AS R19 -- and Algorithm AS 109: A Remark on Algorithms: AS 63: The -- Incomplete Beta Integral AS 64: Inverse of the Incomplete Beta -- Function Ratio. /Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series -- C (Applied Statistics)/ Vol. 26, No. 1 (1977), pp. 111-114 --